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《踏浪》
2007年11月第2期 总第6期
异国的信息踏浪而来，希望他们能够给我们的天空增添一抹新鲜的颜色。
--编 者
[内容导读] 本期包括三个栏目：
深呼吸、乐游园、红帆船
一、" 深呼吸" 登载了两篇文章
1、《关于盲人的界定》
什么是盲人？我们好象很清楚，又好象不很清楚。作者从独特的角度出发，谈了他对这个问题的看法，读来很有意思。应读者的要求，我们在这篇文章的译文后面附上了英语原文，有兴趣的读者可以读一读。
2、《盲人使用珠算》
珠算是中国人的骄傲，但是不只是中国人有算盘，懂得使用算盘。文章里说的是一种在欧美流行的算盘，并介绍了它对学生尤其是盲人学习数学的作用。
二、"乐游园"登载了一篇文章
《令人难忘的救助》。一位普通的美国妇女，真挚的感情造就了她的伟大。我们现在也在呼唤人道，也在呼唤爱心，希望她的故事能给我们一些启迪。
三、红帆船
希望大家喜欢！如果有意见或建议，可以和编辑春鸭直接联系。春鸭的电子邮箱地址是 enewsletter@163。com
深 呼 吸
关于盲人的界定
作者 Kenneth Jernigan
在我们讨论视觉缺陷造成的问题和盲人的能力之前，我们应该有一个可行的关于盲人的界定。大多数人都熟悉一般意义上法律的界定：(单眼矫正视力低于20/200视野不超过20度)。这不是一个令人满意的定义，它只是医学或者测量的术语。对于盲人的界定不仅要考虑医学和生理上的问题，还应该涉及功能的情况。
让我们先把医学术语放在一边。什么是盲人？我曾经问过一群高中生。一个学生相当坚定的回答:"盲人就是看不见的人。"当笑声沉寂下来，我问这个学生，她坚持她的说法吗？她说是的。然后我问她，如果一个人可以看到光线，但是看不清物体，如果不借助盲杖，导盲犬或者其他帮助，她就可能撞上东西，而她又可能只依靠视觉直接进入电话亭或者消防站。这个人是否是盲人？犹豫了一下，这个学生回答，这个人应该算是盲人。我同意她的观点，但是我又指出，她的看法偏离了盲人看不见的字面定义。
接着我又告诉这个学生，有个人双眼视力完全正常，均符合(20/200)的标准。但是他极度畏光，只要有光线就睁不开眼。即便是在最微弱的光线下，他也只有在用手遮挡的情况下，才能把眼睛睁开。尽管他有这样的痛苦，但是他仍然能毫不费力的看清视力表，因此，视力表测试，他的视力正常。这个人向地方福利部门申请了针对盲人的公共服务，由此眼科医生对他做了详细的检查。我问那个学生:"如果你是眼科医生，你会同意给他福利吗？"她回答，是的。
"记住，"我告诉她，"按照法律，你不能让任何不是实际意义上的盲人得到有关盲人的福利。那么，你仍然想给他福利吗？"那个学生说她会的。我再次同意了她的看法，而且又指出，她的想法离她最初关于盲人的滑稽的界定越来越远了。现在，她的看法应该是盲人也可能有正常的视力。
最后我问这个学生，如果一个明眼人进入一个漆黑的地窖，什么都看不见，他是否应该也算作盲人。经过了犹豫和摇摆，她说不应该。我第三次同意了她的看法。然后，我邀请她参加我们编制的测试。
1、盲人并不意味着什么都看不见。(这里我还是要强调，我所说的并不是精神或形象化的术语，而是一般意义上对词汇的理解。)
2、符合生理和字面意义的盲人也可能有正常的视力。
3、明眼人也可能什么都看不见。
这些看似矛盾的说法是盲人的定义吗？我的想法是:盲人必须使用特殊技能以弥补视觉缺陷造成的困难。一个人只有在大量使用特殊技能弥补视觉缺陷时，才能被视为真正的盲人。也就是说，盲人想要有效的发挥能力，他的日常生活方式就一定会有别于明眼人。应该说明的是，我在这里说的特殊技能并不是替代技能，仅从含义上讲，替代技能好象有些贬义，而盲人使用的特殊技能并不比视觉技能差，甚至有的还更好。通常被接受的法律上对盲人的界定是(单眼矫正视力低于20/200，视野小于20度)。这个简单的医学界定在提示，那些视力好于这个标准的人不一定需要弥补视觉缺陷的特殊技能来改变他们的日常生活方式(虽然其中有些人可能需要一些特殊技能)。另一方面，视力低于这个法律标准的人通常(我强调通常是因为不是全部)需要设计大量的特殊技能，以弥补视觉缺陷，并从根本上改变日常生活方式。
也许我们有兴趣把这个标准放到三种情况中加以检验：
首先，只有光感而看不清其他东西的人是什么情况呢？至少在一种条件下他具有和明眼人相同的能力。睡觉前，如果他想知道家里的灯是否都关了，就可以在房间里到处看看。如果他没有光感，就必须使用一些特殊技能了。比如，摸摸灯泡是否还热着，检查一下开关的位置，请明眼人帮忙看看，或者使用其他的办法。但
是，这个有光感的人仍然是盲人。他所采用的视觉技能只是日常生活中很小的内
容，对于全部生活来说是微不足道的，他的日常生活方式仍然从根本上有别于明眼人。他主要使用的仍就是弥补视觉缺陷的特殊技能，也就是说，依靠这些技能，他能够象明眼人一样的生活。接下来让我们看看那个虽然有正常的视力，但是因为畏光不能睁开眼睛的人。他必须使用特殊技能，以弥补视觉的缺陷。当然，他也应该被视为盲人。
最后，那个进入漆黑地窖的明眼人又是什么情况呢？即使他在地窖里什么也看不见，她也是个明眼人。她使用了其他明眼人在同样的情况下可能使用的视觉技
能。视觉技能在这样的情况下是根本没有用的。而如果盲人处于这样的情况，就会使用多种特殊技能了。
我再次强调，盲人的界定不仅是医学和生理学的问题，同时也要考虑功能和社会学的因素。无论先天失明或是后天失明的盲人，都必须学习弥补视觉缺陷的特殊技能。同样，无论是全盲，有光感的人，半盲，还是符合法律界定的盲人，也都应该学习这样的技能。换句话说，我认为在全盲、半盲、先天失明的盲人、后天失明的盲人之间寻找差别是没有意义的。实际上，错误的强调盲人和视觉缺陷造成的问题是有害的。今天，对盲人来说，最危险的情况也许是过分使用专业术语的趋势。
译自 《Low Vision & Blindness Edition》 2005
A Definition of Blindness
by Kenneth Jernigan
Before we can talk intelligently about the problems of blindness or
the potentialities of blind people, we must have a workable definition
of blindness.Most of us are likely familiar with the generally accepted
legal definition: visual acuity of not greater than 20/200 in the better
eye with correction or a field not subtending an angle greater than 20
degrees.But this is not really a satisfactory definition. It is, rather,
a way of recognising in medical and measurable terms something which must
be defined not medically or physically but functionally.
Putting to one side for a moment the medical terminology, what is blindness?Once
I asked a group of high school students this question,and one of them
replied -- apparently believing that she was making a rather obvious statement
-- that a person is blind if she "can't see." When the laughter
subsided, I asked the student if she really meant what she said. She replied
that she did.I then asked her whether she would consider a person blind
who could see light but who could not see objects--a person who would
bump into things unless she used a cane, a dog, or some other travel aid
and who would,if she depended solely on the use of her eyesight, walk
directly into a telephone pole or fire plug. After some little hesitation
the student said that she would consider such a person to be blind. I
agreed with her and then went on to point out the obvious - that she literally
did not mean that the definition of blindness was to be unable to see.
I next told this student of a man I had known who had normal (20/20)
visual acuity in both eyes but who had such an extreme case of sensitivity
to light that he literally could not keep his eyes open at all.The slightest
amount of light caused such excruciating pain that the only way he could
open his eyes was by prying them open with his fingers. Nevertheless,
this person,despite the excruciating pain he felt while doing it, could
read the eye chart without difficulty.The readings showed that he had
"normal sight." This individual applied to the local 'Welfare
Department for Public Assistance to the Blind' and was duly examined by
their ophthalmologist.The question I put to the student was this: "If
you had been the ophthalmologist， would you have granted the aid or not？"
Her answer was, "Yes."
"Remember," I told her, "under the law you are forbidden
to give aid to any person who is not actually blind. Would you still have
granted the assistance？" The student said that she would. Again,I
agreed with her, but I pointed out that, far from her first facetious
statement, what she was saying was this: It is possible for one to have
"perfect sight" and still in the physical, literal sense of
the word be blind.
I then put a final question to the student. I asked her whether if a sighted
person were put into a vault which was absolutely dark so that he could
see nothing whatever, it would be accurate to refer to that sighted person
as a blind man.After some hesitation and equivocation the student said,
"No." For a third time I agreed with her.Then I asked her to
examine what we had established.
1、 To be blind does not mean that one cannot see． (Here again I must
interrupt to say that I am not speaking in spiritual or figurative terms
but in the most literal sense of the word．)
2、 It is possible for an individual to have "perfect sight"
and yet be physically and literally blind．
3、 It is possible for an individual not to be able to see at all and
still be a sighted person．
What，then，in light of these seeming contradictions is the definition
of blindness？ In my way of thinking it is this: One is blind to the extent
that the individual must devise alternative techniques to do efficiently
those things which he would do if he had normal vision． An individual
may properly be said to be "blind" or a "blind person"
when he has to devise so many alternative techniques -- that is， if he
is to function efficiently -- that his pattern of daily living is substantially
altered． It will be observed that I say alternative not substitute techniques，
for the word substitute connotes inferiority，and the alternative techniques
employed by the blind person need not be inferior to visual techniques．In
fact， some of them are superior． The usually accepted legal definition
of blindness already given (that is， visual acuity of less than 20/200
with correction or a field of less than 20 degrees) is simply one medical
way of measuring and recognising that anyone with better vision than the
amount mentioned in the definition will (although he may have to devise
some alternative techniques) likely not have to devise so many such techniques
as to alter substantially his patterns of daily living．On the other hand，
anyone with less vision than that mentioned in the legal definition will
usually (I emphasise the word usually， for such is not always the case)
need to devise so many such alternative techniques as to alter quite substantially
his patterns of daily living．
It may be of some interest to apply this standard to the three cases
already discussed:
First， what of the person who has light perception but sees little or
nothing else？ In at least one situation he can function as a sighted person．
If， before going to bed， he wished to know whether the lights are out
in his home， he can simply walk through the house and "see．"
If he did not have light perception，he would have to use some alternative
technique--touch the bulb， tell by the position of the switch， have some
sighted person give him the information， or devise some other method．
However， this person is still quite properly referred to as a blind person．
This one visual technique which he uses is such a small part of his overall
pattern of daily living as to be negligible in the total picture． The
patterns of his daily living are substantially altered。 In the main he
employs alternative techniques to do those things which he would do with
sight if he had normal vision--that is， he does if he functions efficiently．
Next， let us consider the person who has normal visual acuity but cannot
hold his eyes open because of his sensitivity to light。 He must devise
alternative techniques to do anything which he would do with sight if
he had normal vision。 He is quite properly considered to be a "blind
person．"
Finally， what of the sighted person who is put into a vault which has
no light？ Even though she can see nothing at all， she is still quite properly
considered to be a "sighted person．" She uses the same techniques
that any other sighted person would use in a similar situation． There
are no visual techniques which can be used in such circumstances． In fact，
if a blind person found herself in such a situation， she might very well
have a variety of techniques to use．
I repeat that， in my opinion， blindness can best be defined not physically
or medically but functionally or sociologically． The alternative techniques
which must be learned are the same for those born blind as for those who
become blind as adults． They are quite similar (or should be) for those
who are totally blind or nearly so and those who are "partially sighted"
and yet are blind in the terms of the usually accepted legal definition．
In other words， I believe that the complex distinctions which are often
made between those who have partial sight and those who are totally blind，
between those who have been blind from childhood and those who have become
blind as adults are largely meaningless． In fact， they are often harmful
since they place the wrong emphasis on blindness and its problems． Perhaps
the greatest danger in the field of work for the blind today is the tendency
to be hypnotised by jargon．
盲人使用珠算
作为数字和算数的教具，算盘已经在全世界的幼儿园和小学广泛应用。在西方国家，一种类似俄罗斯算盘但是带有直线的算盘已经非常普及了。它经常被当作塑料或木头玩具。
当练习算数和简单的加减法时，珠算要比松散的珠子之类的教具更有优势。其优点最突出的表现在通过10个一组的算珠，可以使学生更明确的建立10进制的概
念。虽然成人觉得掌握这个概念很轻松，但对儿童来说学习起来的确不容易。许多6岁的儿童可以数到100，但他们可能只是依靠对这些数字的形象记忆。
一种叫做"Cranmer"的算盘，仍旧被盲人广泛的使用着。这种算盘是将一块柔软的布或橡皮放在算珠后面，以防止算珠在无意间被移动。这样一来，当使用者使用算盘时，算珠就会更容易的被固定在位置上了。盲人可以使用算盘完成各种数学运算，比如乘法、除法、加法、减法、平方根和立方根。
虽然现在盲人学生可以使用语音计算器，但是在公立学校和周立盲校珠算依然被作为小学低年级的必修课。盲人学生通过珠算所掌握的数学技能，是语音计算器永远不能替代的。同时，算盘也是盲人学生重要的学习工具。盲人学生可以用盲文和一种被称谓'nemeth'代码的专用盲文数学符号完成计算，但是大数字的乘法和多位腧的除法就比较困难了。而算盘使盲人学生有了处理复杂数学问题的工具，可以和他们用纸笔计算的明眼同学在计算速度和计算能力上一比高下。许多盲人在一生中都觉得算盘这种算数机器是有用的工具。
译自 《It's All Maths》
乐 游 园
令人难忘的救助
至今我仍能记起第一次见到Gretchen Buchenholz的感人情景。那是2002年秋天的一天，她站在纽约一家日托中心的门口，迎接残疾的和有特殊需要的儿童。孩子们缓缓的进入中心，有的孩子使用拐杖，有的孩子有着其他身体障碍。Gretchen
跪下来，问候每个孩子，并和他们说着悄悄话。孩子们羞涩的微笑着，脸上荡漾着幸福和灿烂。
几周后Gretchen告诉我，那天早晨到中心来的孩子当中有一个因为患绝症已经去世了。"他是一个漂亮的活泼的孩子。"Gretchen哭着说。后来我了解到，她经常为失去亲人，忍受破碎生活的家庭服务。我为她的精神和工作所震撼。也就是从那时起，我决定要换个工作了。我作过代理律师，但是以后的两年，我准备加入由Gretchen在20年前创立的儿童福利协会，作它的社区事物管理人。
作为 Al 和 Tipper 的女儿，我总是意识到自己将来应该通过某种方式去帮助别人。11岁时，有一次我和妈妈,姐姐去华盛顿的商业区，从一群衣着破烂，睡在门洞里的无家可归者身边走过。姐姐和我问妈妈，他们为什么要在街上流浪。妈妈回答:"我们应该做些什么去帮帮他们。"妈妈让我们去附近的一家专为救助无家可归者而开办的流动食堂当志愿者，这个想法使我获得了暂时的安宁。
结婚后我到了纽约，也就听说了Gretchen Buchenholz。人们告诉我，这个有六个孩子的纽约人是怎样在许多年里代表了贫穷的和被社会边缘化的家庭，她又是一个怎样的实际的有技巧的宣传者。从为无家可归的孩子买零食开始，她做了许多事情。1974年，她建立了一个叫做Meericat城堡的幼儿园，接收不同种族，不同经济背景，健康的或是残疾的或是患有绝症的儿童(直到今天，这个幼儿园仍然在壮大)。她还经营着一家专为无家可归者开办的流动食堂，并为出生时就携带HIV病毒的儿童呼吁，使他们能从被检测阳性的那一刻起就得到护理。
我想要见到她，并有些紧张。她会是怎样的一个人呢？毕竟她是社会的先锋。我做了什么能与她相提并论呢？
我在曼哈顿的一家餐馆里见到了她，很快就被她的热情和多彩的个性所吸引。她很少有时间消遣和闲聊。反之，她总是不惜于力的为不同处境的人们争取最佳的归宿。
她创办儿童福利协会的故事总是令人惊异。1984年的一天，她去政府部门申请日托中心执照，因为交通事故，她不得不停下来。她走进路边的一个房间，在这里无家可归的家庭正在等待被安置到福利旅馆去。她看见有孩子躺在三个光秃秃的木筐里。孩子们没有纸尿布(他们的父母买不起纸尿布)，房间也很肮脏。她和大人们聊了一会儿，了解到他们和孩子们都很饥饿。于是，她买来了面包,黄油和纸尿
布。接下来她给美国红十字协会,纽约市政厅和《纽约时报》打电话寻求支持，最后，在她的帮助下，终于为这些无家可归者和更多的和他们一样的家庭建立了过度性的收容场所。
这使我对她帮助的孩子有了更多的了解。他们同我家乡的孩子们一样，弱小但是快乐。但是，在他们之间也有差别。最大的不同是 Gretchen 帮助的孩子，在放学后可以回到临时的住所，那里有基本的食物'衣服和钱。Gretchen
使我们明白了这些孩子与我们自己的孩子没有不同，我们应该努力的去帮助他们。人们经常希望逃避痛苦，但是我认为，当你面对艰难或令人心碎的生活时，你获得了坚强。我希望我的孩子能完全了解这些贫穷并在生活中失去了许多的孩子，希望他们能由此受到启迪，去帮助别人。这就是Gretchen
的榜样作用。
一年前，我参加了Gretchen 开办的一所幼儿园的毕业典礼。我被家长们看到孩子领奖时的骄傲和欢乐所感动。在这些孩子中，有些得了绝症，但是这样的典礼永远是他们生活中最欢乐的时刻。
离开时，我无数次的从后视镜里看着那些孩子。Gretchen 为他人的生存，而庆祝，我希望有更多的人能象她一样。
译自 《reader's Digest》March 2006
红帆船
1. 这个栏目是我们的自留地，老师同学们的意见反馈，同学们的交友信息，都可以刊登在这里。希望大家经常和我联系，使这个栏目，这份刊物，真正成为我们共同的家园。谢谢！
2. 最近有爱好英语的读者反映，希望能看到英语原文。这是个很好的建议。从这期开始，我们会在每一期中选择一、两篇文章，刊登它们的英语原文。
3. 希望老师们继续踊跃的来信，提出意见和要求，使我们的刊物真正成为大家的刊物！如果老师们有好的关于盲人教育；生活的翻译文章，也可以发送给我
们。谢谢！
编辑 春鸭
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